Image De Mark I
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Closeup of input/output and control readersThe Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator ( ASCC), called Mark I by ’s staff, was a general purpose that was used in the war effort during the last part of.One of the first programs to run on the Mark I was initiated on 29 March 1944. At that time, von Neumann was working on the, and needed to determine whether implosion was a viable choice to detonate the atomic bomb that would be used a year later. The Mark I also computed and printed mathematical tables, which had been the initial goal of British inventor for his '.The Mark I was disassembled in 1959, but portions of it are displayed in the as part of the. Other sections of the original machine were transferred to IBM and the.
Contents.Origins The original concept was presented to IBM by in November 1937. After a feasibility study by IBM engineers, the company chairman personally approved the project and its funding in February 1939.Howard Aiken had started to look for a company to design and build his calculator in early 1937. After two rejections, he was shown a demonstration set that ’s son had given to Harvard University 70 years earlier. This led him to study Babbage and to add references of the to his proposal; the resulting machine 'brought Babbage’s principles of the Analytical Engine almost to full realization, while adding important new features.' The ASCC was developed and built by IBM at their plant and shipped to in February 1944.
It began computations for the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships in May and was officially presented to the university on August 7, 1944. Design and construction The ASCC was built from,. It used 765,000 components and hundreds of miles of wire, comprising a volume of 816 cubic feet (23 m 3) - 51 feet (16 m) in length, 8 feet (2.4 m) in height, and 2 feet (0.61 m) deep. It weighed about 9,445 pounds (4.7 short tons; 4.3 t). The basic calculating units had to be synchronized and powered mechanically, so they were operated by a 50-foot (15 m) coupled to a 5 horsepower (3.7 kW) electric motor, which served as the main power source. From the IBM Archives:The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Harvard Mark I) was the first operating machine that could execute long computations automatically.
A project conceived by Harvard University’s Dr. Howard Aiken, the Mark I was built by IBM engineers in Endicott, N.Y.
A steel frame 51 feet long and 8 feet high held the calculator, which consisted of an interlocking panel of small gears, counters, switches and control circuits, all only a few inches in depth. The ASCC used 500 miles (800 km) of wire with three million connections, 3,500 multipole relays with 35,000 contacts, 2,225 counters, 1,464 tenpole switches and tiers of 72 adding machines, each with 23 significant numbers. It was the industry’s largest electromechanical calculator.The enclosure for the Mark I was designed by futuristic American. Aiken considered the elaborate casing to be a waste of resources, since computing power was in high demand during the war and the funds ($50,000 or more according to ) could have been used to build additional computer equipment. Operation The Mark I had 60 sets of 24 switches for manual data entry and could store 72 numbers, each 23 decimal digits long.
It could do 3 additions or subtractions in a second. A multiplication took 6 seconds, a division took 15.3 seconds, and a logarithm or a trigonometric function took over one minute.The Mark I read its from a 24-channel. It executed the current instruction and then read in the next one. A separate tape could contain numbers for input, but the tape formats were not interchangeable. Instructions could not be executed from the storage registers. This separation of data and instructions is known as the (although the exact nature of this separation that makes a machine Harvard, rather than, has been obscured with the passage of time; see ).Main sequence mechanism was unidirectional. This meant that complex programs had to be physically lengthy.
A program loop was accomplished by or by joining the end of the paper tape containing the program back to the beginning of the tape (literally creating a ). At first, in the Mark I was performed manually. Later modifications in 1946 introduced automatic program branching (by call). The first programmers of the Mark I were computing pioneers Richard Milton Bloch, Robert Campbell, and. Rear view of computing sectionInstruction format The 24 channels of the input tape were divided into three fields of eight channels.
Each, each set of switches, and the associated with the, and were assigned a unique identifying index number. These numbers were represented in on the control tape. The first field was the binary index of the result of the operation, the second was the source for the operation and the third field was a for the to be performed.
Contribution to the Manhattan project In 1928 was the first to turn IBM “punched-card equipment to scientific use: computation of astronomical tables by the method of finite differences, as envisioned by Babbage 100 years earlier for his Difference Engine”. Very soon after, IBM started to modify its tabulators to facilitate this kind of computation. One of these tabulators, built in 1931, was The Columbia Difference Tabulatorhad a team at Los Alamos that used “modified IBM punched-card machines” to determine the effects of implosion. On 29 March 1944, he demanded to run certain problems regarding implosion on the Mark I. In early August 1944 he arrived with two mathematicians to write a simulation program to study the implosion of the first.The Los Alamos group completed its work in a much shorter time than the Cambridge group.
However, the punched-card machine operation computed values to six decimal places, whereas the Mark I computed values to eighteen decimal places. Additionally, Mark I integrated the partial differential equation at a much smaller interval size or smaller mesh and so.achieved far greater precision.“Von Neumann joined the in 1943, working on the immense number of calculations needed to build the. He showed that the implosion design, which would later be used in the Trinity and Fat Man bombs, was likely faster and more efficient than the gun design.” Aiken and IBM Aiken published a press release announcing the Mark I listing himself as the sole “inventor”.
Was the only IBM person mentioned, even though several IBM engineers including Clair Lake and Frank Hamilton had helped to build various elements. IBM chairman was enraged, and only reluctantly attended the dedication ceremony on August 7, 1944. Aiken, in turn, decided to build further machines without IBM’s help, and the ASCC came to be generally known as the 'Harvard Mark I'. IBM went on to build its (SSEC) to both test new technology and provide more publicity for the company's own efforts. Successors The Mark I was followed by the (1947 or 1948), (September 1949), and (1952) – all the work of Aiken.
The Mark II was an improvement over the Mark I, although it still was based on electromechanical. The Mark III used mostly — and —but also included mechanical components: rotating for storage, plus relays for transferring data between drums. The Mark IV was all-electronic, replacing the remaining mechanical components with. The Mark II and Mark III were delivered to the base at. The Mark IV was built for the, but it stayed at Harvard.The Mark I was disassembled in 1959, but portions of it are displayed in the, as part of the. Other sections of the original machine were transferred to IBM and to the. See also., a pioneering 19th-century mechanical computer.
Other early computers:. (Germany).
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(Poland)References Notes. The machine’s name as actually displayed on the hardware itself is 'Aiken-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator Mark I'. An early photograph (Wilkes 1956:16 figure 1-7) displays the name as 'IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator'., p.164 (2000)., p. 53 (2000)., p.39 (2000) It was first rejected by the and then by Harvard University. Retrieved 14 December 2013. IEEE Spectrum.
1 (8): 62–69. August 1964. Retrieved 7 August 2017. 23 January 2003. Computer Oral History Collection, 1969-1973, 1977Grace Murray Hopper Interview, January 7, 1969, Archives Center, National Museum of American History(PDF).
Archived from (PDF) on 2012-02-23. Retrieved 2012-10-21. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title. ^ (1956). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Pp. 16–20., p. 43. Beyer, Kurt W. Pp. 78–79.
Bloch, Richard (1984-02-22).: 9–10. CBI Hosted Publications. Image:, description: H Chapter, pp. Retrieved 2018-05-08., subsidiary sequence control, pp.
22, 50, 57, 73, 91., p. 53. Wexelblat, Richard L.
(Ed.) (1981). History of Programming Languages, p.
New York: Academic Press. Retrieved 15 December 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
^ p.166 (2000)., p. Retrieved 12 May 2019. ^ Emerson W. Pugh (1995). MIT Press.; William Aspray, (1996). Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2016-05-24.Publications.
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Cohen, Bernard, ed. Makin' Numbers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
(1999), Aiken's First Machine in, pp. 31–63. (2006), Machine against Machine in, pp. 64–77., ed. (2006), Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford: Oxford University Press,. Zuse, Konrad (1993).
The Computer - My life. Berlin: Pringler-Verlag.External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to. Cruz, Frank da (August 2004). Columbia University Computing History.
Retrieved April 23, 2011. at, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Hawkins discusses the Harvard-IBM Mark I project that he worked on at Harvard University as a technician as well as ’s leadership of the project. at, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Bloch describes his work at the Harvard Computation Laboratory for on the Mark I. at, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Campbell discusses the contributions of Harvard and IBM to the Mark I project., book excerpt web page, with illustrations, by, from Grosch, Herbert R.J. Third Millennium Books. (Third edition online in 2003).
Popular Science, October 1944, Page 86. (PDF). Photo with parts of the machine identified:.
Contents.Opening (1:1) Verse 1 The beginning of the of, theThe opening verse of the states right from the start 's. However, because there is no in the, some have suggested that ( ιησου χριστου υιου του θεου ) could be '. A Son of God'. Robert Miller translates it as 'The of Jesus the ' on the basis that χριστου means 'anointed' and the phrase υιου του θεου is not present in a few early witnesses. The 'beginning' could refer to the beginning of the book, or the next verse, or the beginning of the story of Jesus, as Mark is only beginning to tell you about Jesus' life, not writing his entire.By saying he is the anointed, Mark is declaring Jesus the, the successor to King.
Mark always uses 'Christ' which is derived from the Greek translation, he never uses 'Messias' ( ) which is derived from the Greek of the word for 'Messiah'. Son of God can be seen as synonymous with a political messiah, in this case the, but can also be seen as expressing, as in the phrase '. Only the opponents of Jesus call him this in Mark until the in. The 'good news' could refer to the news about Jesus or from Jesus or Jesus as the good news or a combination of them all.' S Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pages - states:' Εὐαγγέλιον Good news or Gospel in the occurs only in the plural, and perhaps only in the classical sense of 'a reward for good tidings' ( also, ); in the it is from the first appropriated to the Messianic good tidings (, ), probably deriving this new meaning from the use of εὐαγγέλίζεσθαι in,.' Unique among all early manuscripts, the original version this verse in the, before a correction ('S1'), did not include the phrase 'the Son of God'. Main article:Mark describes John's activities, preaching and of and in the.
He says he wore, a belt, and survived on and wild. His clothes resemble Elijah's as described in. There is also the of true prophet's clothing in the. His diet may have been his attempt at purity There has been much speculation that John was an, perhaps also, but there is no hard evidence either way.
According to, Jesus and John were relatives and John is described as being a from birth. All portraits of him paint him as certainly an, but also as a popular and respected preacher.This portrait of John is somewhat the same but somewhat different from the one gives us. Josephus states that John baptized, but not for the forgiveness of sins and that he was a great leader of the people, making no mention of Jesus regarding John. This difference might show how Mark views John, as a representative of and merely the herald of who Mark deems the more important, Jesus. According to the John baptising was also found at the beginning of that book as well. John is revered in.Many people come to be baptised by John. He tells them 'After me will come one more powerful than I, the thongs of whose sandals I am not worthy to stoop down and untie.
I baptize you with water, but he will baptize you with the '. Untying someone's sandals was a task commonly done by someone's slave. What baptising with the Holy Spirit refers to, as Jesus never baptises in Mark, is uncertain if one only considers Mark.
Has Jesus' (but not Jesus) baptising at the same time as John the Baptist. (See also,.) and specify baptism with holy spirit and fire.Verse 7 And he preached, saying, “There comes One after me who is mightier than I, whose sandal strap I am not worthy to stoop down and loose.” Verse 8 “I indeed baptized you with water, but He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit.”Some see John's statement patterned on the, in. Other books used this pattern to describe other, such as in and.The concluded that this was one of the authentic ('red') acts of Jesus, recorded in, 1, and which it calls 'A voice in the wilderness'.Jesus' baptism and temptation.
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See also: andJesus is one of the many who come to be baptised, in his case from in. Since John, according to Mark, baptised repentance for the forgiveness of sins some have argued Jesus also is coming to be forgiven for his sins; but Mark notes that John says that he is unworthy. Mark also has John's function as preparing things for Jesus, and some argue this baptism is meant to forward the fulfillment of Jesus' plan.
Has John say his baptism was his method of revealing Jesus to. Perhaps Jesus is doing this to embrace the doctrine of baptism and repentance of sins and his oneness with those who embrace it. The, in, says Jesus was 'just as we are — yet was without ' and states: '.sin is.' Mark introduces Jesus without a history or a description, suggesting the intended reader already has heard of him. Mark, like all the Gospels, gives no physical description of Jesus, unlike the short previous description of John. Mark's readers are assumed already to know about the two of them.John baptizes him and Jesus then sees a.
He sees ' being torn open' (: σχιζομένους, schizomenous, rent open) 'and the descending on him like a ', and hears a voice telling him that he is God's son whom God loves, and with whom God is well pleased. The vision could be related to a, as well as. The 'opening of the heavens' is often seen as the union and beginning of communication between God and the world. Whether anyone else besides Jesus saw this has been often debated: says the Spirit descended in ' form; says John said he saw the Spirit descend onto Jesus. Some have speculated that this event may have been a story that has its origins in the practice of baptism, although theologian Robert J.
Karris argues that this is unlikely.Some have argued that since Mark begins his story here, at the baptism, that this could be seen as a form of, as it is God's action which changed Jesus' life, although Mark probably is confirming their preexistent relationship Jesus is never declared as God's adopted son anywhere in the book, but Mark does not exactly state how or when Jesus became God's son. Both Matthew and Luke use their to show that Jesus was God's son from the moment of, and has him as the from the moment of.The calls Jesus 'beloved'. Some see a relationship between this description and that of in, where had shown his devotion to God by being willing to, so God shows his love for by actually sacrificing his son, see also.
There is also the possible link with this and the in,. Christ in the desert byThe spirit then 'at once', Kai euthys ( ), sends him out into the desert to be by for forty days. Forty is a common device in the Bible, such as the forty days of the flood in and the forty years of the Israelites wandering in the desert in. Elijah also spent forty days and nights travelling to in.
Unlike - and the number of temptations or what they were are not described. Mark does say that came to minister to him. Karris argues the angels and the wilderness are related to.John is put into prison, presumably. Mark uses the term paradothēnai ( ) to describe John being turned over, which Mark also uses to describe Jesus being arrested during his. Mark has already highlighted two themes, Jesus' power from and favor of God, contrasted with his confrontation with Satan and John being arrested, showing his power and mission have already encountered the most extreme challenges both from the authorities of this and powers.The concluded that parts of these accounts were authentic ('red') acts of Jesus, specifically: 'John baptizes Jesus':, 4; and 'Jesus proclaims the gospel':.Calling of the four disciples. See also:, andJesus then goes into, preaching 'The is near ( ēngiken). And believe the gospel ( euangelion)!'
The kingdom of God can be seen as a physical or spiritual place. It could also be translated as 'God's imperial rule', indicating the power of God over all things. The gospel is seen as not just God's message but his actions.
Jesus here links the coming of God with the term ēngiken , which some see as meaning 'near' as in 'upcoming in the future' but others argue it means 'near' as in Jesus himself is near and the coming of God has arrived. These are then linked with repentance, a change of heart, and then belief. Belief and repentance are thus what Jesus says God desires. See also.Jesus goes to the and finds (whom he will name (Peter) in ) and his brother. They are, a large business then in Galilee. He speaks the famous phrase 'Come, follow me.and I will make you fishers of men.' Some have argued their status as fishermen is, based perhaps on, but Karris argues that their occupations as fishermen was historical and related by Mark to show the costliness of being a disciple, as they had to leave a presumably thriving business.
Andrew was a of John the Baptist according to. He only appears three times in Mark, here, and in. They follow him and then soon come upon and (whom he will name the in ), who also quickly join the group, 'they left their father Zebedee in the boat with the hired men.' Peter, James, and John will play a prominent part in several incidents in the Gospel. Mark does not relate that Jesus convinced them to follow him in any way.
Mark simply has them follow him without question. Kilgallen argues that historically this calling was not so sudden, with perhaps a prior meeting, but Mark has shortened it for extra effect to emphasize total devotion to Jesus. John relates Jesus convincing to join the group.Mark says they had nets in and they and their father, employed other men in. Karris argues this shows they had money and a high probability of being educated, with a knowledge of the.
Others point to to show that they were unschooled, but Karris argues against reading this too literally.has Andrew and someone else who are with John the Baptist follow Jesus after John calls him the. They then bring Simon to Jesus, who gives him the Aramaic name, meaning Rock (Peter). And Nathanael are then called secondly, not James and John.
A 1923 map showing Galilee circa 50AD. Capernaum is in the upper right while Nazareth is towards the centre.Jesus and the four go to, which Mark has as Jesus's center of activity and Jesus teaches in the on the. Eventually, in, at the, Mark uses the technical term, meaning a Jewish teacher of. Gathering disciples (students) and teaching are thus the first part of what Jesus does to proclaim the kingdom of God. Mark does not relate what Jesus taught, which could mean he left it out because he did not deem it important enough for his book or because he did not know what Jesus taught there. Some believe a synagogue in Capernaum that has been excavated lies on top of the synagogue that existed at this time that would have been the one Jesus would have gone to.
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Anyone who showed a sufficient knowledge of the scriptures could preach in the synagogue. Mark says the people thought Jesus taught with ', which the did not. The scribes would answer questions in a traditional, official manner, see also. Jesus in Mark operates on no authority but his own judgement.
According to Jesus attended the before going to Capernaum.He then on a man. Curing people, especially possessed people, will be another major method Jesus uses in his in Mark. The demon recognizes Jesus as 'the one of God', the first time Jesus' supernatural opponents are shown to know his true identity. Jesus simply says 'Be quiet, and come out of him!' , healing the man with words alone. The people are amazed.
This follows a path Mark often uses, that of a description of the affliction, Jesus' cure of the affliction, and then a demonstration of the cure to others. The power of Jesus' word over the demon might be Mark's way of trying to show to his audience, perhaps under the threat of, that Jesus' message will overcome. By showing Jesus' teaching first before his exorcism Mark might be placing emphasis on as more important that any he could perform.There were several people who were claimed to have the ability to perform exorcisms in the ancient world and many ancient opponents of Christianity dismissed Jesus as just another. Most descriptions of exorcisms at the time tended to involve the exorcist tricking the spirit or demon into leaving the victim by convincing them the exorcist had more power than the being, not a method Jesus employs. Parallels in cultural stories of exorcisms differ in that they usually involve an associated, which is not the case here.
Sees a clear distinction between these incidents and descriptions of magicians at the time. Alleged ruins of house of St. Peter under the Catholic Church inThey go to Peter and Andrew's house. The house was presumably near the synagogue. She then gets up and helps Jesus and his companions.
Attending to her guests would have been her social duty in the Jewish culture. Mark uses the term ēgeiren , to lift up, to describe Jesus' cure of her, followed by diēkonei , she served, which some have seen as a theological message about Jesus' power requiring service.
Karris argues for this event's historicity, perhaps based on an eyewitness. A story about Peter's mother-in-law might have survived due to the popularity of Peter among early Christians.Peter is clearly listed here as having a wife, as Jesus healed his mother-in-law. Says that other, Cephas (Peter), and have wives, but not him, in. See also.It is now night.
Mark says 'That evening after,' one of his examples of redundancy as evening and after sunset are really the same thing repeated. Neither Luke and Matthew retain this redundancy. By this time word has spread and the people have brought the sick and possessed for Jesus to heal, which he does. Mark says the 'whole city' came to see Jesus, which is probably an exaggeration.
Both Luke and Matthew just state there were many people. The demons leaving the possessed people are not allowed to tell people who Jesus is, a common theme of Mark called the. Jesus is able to cure every affliction of the people who come to see him.He then leaves town very early in the morning for solitary. Mark says πρωι εννυχον λιαν ( prōi ennycha lian, 'very early, it being yet night', a complicated description of time employing three. His disciples find him and tell him that everyone is looking for him. He says 'Let us go somewhere else', to the nearby villages and he will preach to them there also.
He says 'That is why I have come', using the word εξηλθον ( exēlthon), with its ex- prefix focusing on the place from which he has come, which some see as meaning a statement about Jesus' divine mandate or possibly a rejection of Capernaum: there is no general agreement on these points. He then travels over all of Galilee, preaching and healing.He who comes to him asking for a cure and tells him to show the and offer the cleaning sacrifices had commanded , but not to tell people that Jesus had done it.
Jesus here seems to stress the importance of the, see also. This episode is also recorded in the 2:1-4. People have seen Jesus telling the man to be quiet about what had happened as related to the Messianic Secret, although it could be Jesus just telling the man to immediately go to the priests. Leprosy could mean many skin diseases, such as. Mark says Jesus had 'compassion' for the man, although a few manuscripts say he was angry, and some have argued that angry was the original word intentionally changed to make Jesus look less angry, as he is described as giving a 'stern', embrimēsamenos ( ), warning to the man in verse 43. Mark however also shows Jesus' anger in many other places, such as and the, see also. 's Textual Commentary on the Greek NT postulates a possible 'confusion between similar words in (compare ethraham, 'he had pity,' with ethra'em, 'he was enraged').'
The man then seems to disobey and spreads the news, increasing Jesus' popularity even more. Whether or not he ever made it to the priests Mark does not say. This is the first of many times in Mark that Jesus unsuccessfully tries to conceal his workings by telling people to keep what he has done a secret. Karris argues that one could also read it as Jesus 'spreading the news', not the man. Verse 45 The chapter ends with Jesus returning to the 'deserted' or 'lonely' places,: επ ερημοις τοποις, ep eremois topois, which have been mentioned throughout the chapter (Mark 1:3; 4; 12-13; 35; 45), but the people follow him there too.Comparison with other canonical gospels Matthew records these events in without an explicit mention of the exorcism and the.
The curing of the leper then appears in after the, along with the healing of Peter's mother-in-law in.Luke largely has the same order as Mark in except that Jesus calls his disciples after meeting Peter and curing his mother-in-law. Luke also has Jesus going to after his temptation and arguing with the people there. Matthew says he left Nazareth and went to Galilee, but does not relate what happened there.John records Jesus' baptism and calling of disciples in.
John also has Jesus' disciples baptising at the same time as John the Baptist and so has more occur before John's arrest than the do.References. ^ Miller 13. 'The gospel of Jesus the Anointed begins with something Isaiah the prophet wrote:' 1:1-2a Scholars Version, Miller 13. Kilgallen 17. Kilgallen 22. Kilgallen 21.
Retrieved 2017-02-13. ^, accessed 9 November 2017. Metzger, 73. ^ Brown et al. 599. Novum Testamentum Graece, Nestle-Aland, p.88 'Kata Markon 1', 27th edition, 1979, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft Stuttgart, see article on:. Kilgallen 23-24.
Gk. Before your face.
Novum Testamentum Graece, p.88; also: 'We know also that the writers of the New Testament made use of it, borrowing from it most of their citations; it became the Old Testament of the Church and was so highly esteemed by the that several writers and declared it to be inspired. The Christians had recourse to it constantly in their controversies with the Jews, who soon recognized its imperfections, and finally rejected it in favour of the or of more literal translations (, ).' , see also. Kilgallen 24. Miller 253. Kilgallen 26., on Mark 1, accessed 27 May 2018.: NIV translation).
^ Brown 128. So translated, for example in the, but translated as their being 'torn apart' in the., published 17 September 2012, accessed 13 May 2018. Kilgallen 28.
Miller 14. Kilgallen 32-36.
^ Brown et al.